The Celtic tribes of Roman Gaul. For a larger version of this map click here or on the map itself (this will open in a new window).
The map on the left shows all the major Celtic tribes of Roman Gaul. This is based, in the main, on Roman records circa 60 BCE but also includes some historical information for highly-mobile tribes such as the Boii. Hence the Boii territory in cis-alpine Gaul (Italy) before they were subdued by Rome is given. As for the Brythonic tribes several of the Gaulish tribes were a confederation rather than a single peoples. There were also several smaller tribes whose existence were known and who were either isolated geographically from the main tribes, or allied to them though these are not presented here.
Due to its early conquest and its centuries of Romanization some of the Gaulish tribes are very well documented, though others are almost unrecorded.
Short Descriptions of the Celtic Tribes of Gaul
Aedui
The Aedui (or Haedui) occupied a significant art of what is today Burgundy in the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis. According to Livy (Titus Livius) they were part of Bellovesus' expedition into Italy during the sixth century BCE. Even before Julius Caesar's invasion of Gaul the Aedui had allied themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of 'brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people'. Indeed, when their neighbours the Sequani invaded their territory and subjugated them (with the aid of Ariovistus, a Germanic chieftain) the Aedui sent a druid named Divitiacus to Rome to appeal to the senate for aid. His mission, however, was unsuccessful.
During his invasion of Gaul (in 58 BCE), Caesar restored the Aedui's independent status, however, the Aedui seem to have been reluctant allies of Rome at this time and actually joined Vercingetorix's coalition against Caesar. Still, after Vercingetorix's surrender the Aedui seemed glad enough to return to their former allegiance with Rome. Despite this, the Romans dismantled the Aedui's traditional capital at Bibracte on Mount Beuvray and substituted a new town, Augustodunum (modern-day Autun) as their administrative centre. During Caesar's time the Aedui elected a chief magistrate annually who was termed the Vergobretus (judgement-worker). He possessed the powers of life and death over the people and was forbidden to pass beyond the tribe's frontiers. The Aedui were a powerful tribe and a number of clientes (smaller communities) were dependent upon them.
During the early half of the first century CE the Aedui seem to have become neglected and this resulted in the revolt of 21 CE (under Julius Sacrovir) where Augustudunum was seized; though the revolt was quickly put down by Gaius Silius. Though by the time of Claudius the tribe's fortunes seem to have improved significantly and and this tribe was the first of the Gauls to receive from Claudius the distinction of jus honorum.
Allobriges
The Allobriges (sometimes known as the Allobrogs) were located between the Rhône and Lake Geneva. They appear to have been a warlike tribe and their capital was at the site of modern-day Vienne. Living alongside the alps they controlled many of the important passes and they are first mentioned by Polybius (circa 150–130 BCE) who relates their unsuccessful resistance to Hannibal when he crossed the Alps in 218 BCE. As well as their famous warriors the Allobriges were a wealthy tribe, partly due to their control of the Alpine passes and partly due to their control of the Rhone valley that allowed them to generate an abundance of wheat.
In 123 BCE the Allobriges came into direct conflict with Rome. During that year the Romans defeated the tribe of the Salluvii (along the southern coast of Gaul) but their king, Tuto-Motulus fled northwards and sought shelter with the Allobroges. This was given and when they refused to hand him over to Rome the Romans declare war and moved against them. Defeat came on August 8th 121 CE when the legions of Quintus Fabius Maximus defeated the tribe and forced them to submit. As a result Fabius earned the title Allobrogicus. In 65 BCE, however, the Allobriges revolted under Catugnatus but they were quickly defeated by Gaius Pomptinus at Solonium. This resulted in much of the Allobriges' wealth being paid to Rome. Indeed, during 63 BCE representatives of the Allobriges were in rome discussing conditions relating to their debt issues. At the same time Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) a Roman senator invited the Allobriges to join his conspiracy. But they declined and actually exposed the plot.
From this point the Allobrigian star was on the ascendant and they joined with Julius Caesar during his Gallic campaigns. So trusted were the Allobriges by now that Augustus stationed them in Gallia Narbonensis and Gallia Viennensis. During this time Vienne grew in size so that by 100 CE Tacitus described it as an "historic and imposing" city; with the city's wealth derived from tolls collected from those travelling through the mountain passes (most notable the Via Agrippa).
Interestingly, despite their long association with Rome the Allobriges seem to have maintained native names and native attributes for their deities. A good example being the healer god worshiped at Aix-les-Baines who is invoked as Borvo (rather than Apollo).
Ambiani
The Ambiani were a Gaulish tribe living along the lower reaches of the Somme. Their capital was originally called Samarobriva (which actually corresponds to the modern city of Amiens which preserves the name of the tribe). The Ambiani seem to have been consummate minters and Ambianic coinage is found throughout the territories of the Belgic tribes (including the Belgae of Britain). In 57 BCE the Ambiani joined the coalition of Belgic tribes. There is some evidence from a coin that bears a stag on one side and a betorced head on the obverse that the Ambiani were followers of the god Cernunnos.
Andecavi
The Andecavi were the Gaulish tribe of the Anjou (Maine-et-Loire) region of western France. Indeed, the name Anjou itself derives from the Latin Andegavia (land of the Andecavi). Their principal city was Angers (Juliomagus Andecavorum to the Romans). In 52 BCE the tribe (lead by Dumnacus) was one of the first to join forces with Vercingetorix, however with the collapse of the resistance they were soon over-run by the Romans. Tacitus writes in his Annals that in 21 CE, under the pressure of heavy debts, many of the Gaulish tribes rose-up in revolt. First, however, in the actual revolt were the Andecavi and the Turoni and the Andevavi were Acilius Aviola, who had summoned a cohort which was on garrison duty at Lugdunum.
Atrebates
If Julius Caesar's comments in his De Bello Gallico (On the Gallic Wars) are to be believed, then he connected the Atrebates of north-western Gaul with a Belgic tribe originating in Germania which invaded norther Gaul during the fourth and second centuries BCE. It is possible that during one of these territorial shifts the Atrebates settled in the area of modern Arras where they founded their main city Nemetocenna. An offshoot of the Atrebates also seems to have settled in Britain and retained their tribal name. From Caesar it is also clear that the Atrebates were one of the tribes involved in the Belgic coalition, delivering a quota of 15 000 warriors to the cause. By the time of the battle of Sabis in 57 CE the Atrebates had formed an alliance with their neighbours the Nervii and Viromanduii to face the Roman legions. At this battle the coalition managed to cause a reversal of fortunes by demolishing the left wing of Caesar's army (held by the IXth and Xth legions). However, sometime during 56 BCE the Atrebatean tribal leader, Commius seemed to have moved the tribe closer to the Romans whilst he himself became an aide to Julius Caesar. He even joined Caesar on both his expeditions to Britain where (in 54 BCE) he played an instrumental role in persuading Cassivellaunus to come to terms.
In 51 BCE came a second reversal of fortunes as Commius joined forces with other Gaulish leaders in an attempt to relieve Vercingetorix during the siege of Alesia. During this campaign the Atrebatean regiment ng with all the other Gaulish relief forces were soundly repulsed by Caesar. The following year, realising that there would be no escape from Caesar's retribution, he came to terms with his legate, Marcus Antonius, and offered some of his own family as hostages. Still not satisfied that he could trust Antony, he later fled to Britain and vowed never to set eyes on a Roman again. This is where Commius re-appears as the leader of the Brythonic Atrebates.
Ptolemy's Geography (dating to the second century CE) refers to a peoples known as the Atrebati who lived on the coast of Belgic Gaul near the river Sequana (modern Seine) and he names Metacum as one of their towns.
Arverni
The Arverni were a Gaulish tribe of the modern-day region of the Auvergne. The name of this tribe is derived from that of their tutelary deity, Arvernus after whom both the tribe and their territory is named. They were a large, powerful and influential tribe with their most important stronghold being Gergovia (which seems to have lain somewhere near modern Clermont-Ferrand).
During the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE the Arverni were undoubtedly the prominent Gaulish tribe, with their zenith occurring during the leadership of Luernios. However, his son Bituitus was not such an astute leader and was defeated by the Romans in 123 BCE. With their conversion into a Roman provincia this led to the rise of the Aedui and Sequani.
The Arverni's most famous son is undoubtedly Vercingetorix who, in 52 BCE led the great revolt against the Romans. A near-run thing, the revolt Vercingetorix an his men were finally defeated at the Siege of Alesia (a major fort of the Mandubii tribe) in September 52 BCE. This marked the end of generalized and organized resistance to the Roman invasion of Gaul which subsequently became a Roman province. The garrison of Alesia was taken prisoner as well as the survivors of the relief army. They were either sold into slavery or given as booty to Caesar's legionaries, except for the members of the Aedui and Averni tribes, which were released and pardoned to secure the alliance of these large and important tribes to Rome.
Aulerci
The Aulerci were a fairly major confederation of four sub-tribes, the Aulerci Cenomani (discussed above), the Aulerci Brannovices, the Aulerci Diablintes and the Aulerci Eburovinces. Of these, the Aulerci Brannovices (People of the Raven) are probably the least well documented and lived somewhere south of the Yonne. The Aulerci Diablintes along with the Aulerci Cenomani form the two major components of this confederation. At the time of Julius Caesar's invasion the Aulerci Diablintes occupied a region that corresponds to the northern part of the modern French department of the Mayenne. In 56 BCE they take part in the uprising of the Veneti which is put down with a naval battle just off Port-Navalo. Their principal town was Jublians (derived from the name of the tribe) and in the second century CE Ptolemy records in his Geography that one of their cities was Noviodunum.
The Aulerci Eburovices (People of the Yew) resided in the modern French department of the Eure. They were one of the more minor components of the Aulerci confederation whose main town vicus was Gisacum (modern-day Oldone). They are mentioned in passing by Julius Caesar in his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars), though little else is known about this people, save that their main town was located at Mediolanum (modern évreux). Aulerci Sagii were another minor component of the Aulerci about whom little is known save their name. Their principal settlement seems to have been at modern-day Sées, France.
Baiocasses
Little is known of the Baiocasses, save for their coinage and a passing mention by Julius Caesar in his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) as one of the peoples gathered by Vercingetorix to aid with the relief of the Siege of Alesia. A gold sater of the Baiocasses provides one of the most famous images we have of the god Ogmios and indicates that he probably had a special affinity with this tribe. Their lands were east of the Unelli in the region of Armorica (Brittany) and their capital seems to have been Augustodurum. It is probably from the Baioocasses that the modern name Bayeux in Normandy derives. It is also possible that the Baiocesses were a sub-tribe of the Esuvii (for a full discussion of this see the section on the Esuvii, below).
Boii
The Boii were an alpine peoples who seem to have had an expansionist phase possibly around the fourth century BCE where they both migrated north-westwards from their homelands in the west of what is now Switzerland as well as traversing the alps to settle in the north-west of Italy. In the main is is the Boii that the Romans speak of when they refer to Cisalpine Gaul. At their greatest extent the Boii lived in Helvetia, Cisalpine Gaul, Bohemia, Moravia and western Slovakia. Indeed, the name Bohemia is derived from the tribal name of the Boii. In his De Bello Gallico Julius Caesar also refers to an invasion of Norican territory by a confederation led by the Boii that assaulted the city of Noreia. Here, Caesar is undoubtedly making a reference to the Cimbrian War of 115–101 BCE.
Cimbri and Teutones had left their original lands around the Baltic sea in the Jutland peninsula and Southern Scandinavia. They journeyed to the southeast, and after defeating the Scordisci, arrived in 113 BC on the Danube at Noricum, which was home to the Taurisci tribe, who were allies of Rome. Unable to repel these new invaders, the Taurisci, called upon the might of Rome to protect them and restore their lands. The Cimbri (who are taken to be a proto-Germanic peoples but whose name is Celtic, meaning 'compatriots' just as it does for the modern Cymry of Wales) were led by a king called Boiorix (which literally means 'King of the Boii'). Thus Caesar may have been correct in that the invasion was a confederation with the chieftain of the Boii acting as overlord. The Romans report that they inflicted a crushing defeat, though politically the Boii seem to have been little affected by this, indicating that the Roman reports may be more than a little over-stated.
Livy in his Ab Urbe Condita mentions that it was the Boii who offered to show Hannibal the passes across the Alps, which makes sense in terms of their territories lying on both sides of the Alps.
About 60 BCE some of the Boii migrated Noricum and Pannonia when 31,000 of them joined the expedition of the Helvetians into Gaul, only to share their defeat at Babracte. Subsequently, however, they were allowed by Caesar to settle in the territory of the Aedui. In their original homeland, their main settlement was Gorgobina (site currently unknown) and according to Strabo those of the Boii that remained on the Danube were exterminated by the Dacian ruler, Boerebista and afterwards the district they had occupied was called 'The Dessert of the Boii'.
The tribal name may mean something like 'the terrible' and could refer to this peoples' stature and their weaponry. Iron-age remains indicate that the Boii fought with huge double-handed swords that only a person of some considerable stature could wield.
Bellovaci
In his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) Julius Caesar notes that of all the Belgic tribes, the Bellovaci were the 'most powerful among them in valour, influence, and the number of men; that they could muster 100 000 armed men and had promised 60 000 picked men of that number.' They therefore formed the largest part of the Belgic alliance against Caesar's invasion and as a result demanded for themselves the command of the war. The Belgiae managed to hold back the forces of Caesar, who fell into retreat. But seeing this the Belgic alliance fell apart which allowed Caesar to pick-off the members of the alliance piecemeal. After defeating the Seussiones Caesar next turned his attention to the Bellovaci. They retreated to the fortified town of Bratuspantium The Bellovaci plead for clemency, which Caesar grants only after he has been granted 600 hostages from them. As a tribe, the Bellovaci occupied the region of the current French department of Oise and seem to have been the predominant craftsmen of the Belgic tribes. After their defeat the capital of the Bellovaci's territory became Caesaromagus (modern-day Beauvais whose name is derived from that of the tribe).
Bituriges
The tribe's name is derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements *bitu- (world) and *rix- (king) thus the Bituriges considered themselves as 'Kings of the World'. This may once have been the case, though by the time of the Romans the Bituriges were two distinct tribes: Bituriges-Cubi in the region of Berry with a capital at Avaricum (Bourges) and Bituriges-Vivisci in the region of Burdigala (Bordeaux) a capital in the city of Bordeaux itself. Originally (probably around 600 BCE) they may well have been a single tribe and this would have made then the largest and most powerful peoples of Gaul, though some time in their history (current estimates are around 500 BCE) they seem to have split and the two main branches became isolated from one another.
By the time of Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars the Bituriges-Cubi seem to have become little more than a client peoples of the neighbouring Aedui. During the revolt of Vercingetorix the Bituriges-Cubi fell back to their main oppidium (hilltop town) of Avaricum and though they put up a desperate resistance this was ultimately taken by assault and all its surviving inhabitants were put to the sword. During the following year, the Bituriges-Cubi submitted to Caesar. In 28 CE they were incorporated in Aquitania by Augustus. The district contained a number of iron works and Caesar describes them as skilled in mining operations. Pliny in his Natural Histories describes them as liberi, indicating that they enjoyed a certain amount of autonomy under the Roman system of government. Pliny also describes the Biturges-Vivisci as being liberi as well. Even in Roman times this region was a wine region of considerable import. Records from the second century BCE indicates that at the time the Bituriges Vivisci were sub-divided into several tribes: the Boïates of Buch, the Belendi of Belin and the Medulli of Medoc.
Caletes
The Caletes were the Belgic tribe of the Pays-de-Caux in the Seine Maritime of Normandy, with their principal settlement at modern-day Lillebonne (according to local tradition it was razed by Julius Caesar, possibly as a result of the Caletes' part in the Belgic resistance). A sea-faring peoples, the Caletes were traders and had strong ties with (and were allies of) the Veneti. They were part of the Belgic confederation who opposed Caesar in 57 BCE. They also provided 6 000 troops to aid Vercingetorix at the siege of Alesia in 52 BCE.
Etymologically the name of the Caletes is derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *kaleto- (hard, curel, strong). Thus the Caletes are the 'Strong Ones'.
Carnutes
If the extent of their territory is anything to go by, then the Carnutes were a powerful Gaulish tribe, with lands that correspond to the greater extents of the modern departments of Eure-et-Loir, Loiret and Loir-et-Cher in the western part of central France. Amongst Roman observers it seems that the territory of the Carnutes had the reputation of being the political and religious center of the Gallic peoples. Their chief cities were Cenabum (modern Orleans) and Autricum (also known as Carnutes which evolved by linguistic drift into Chartres). Julius Caesar describes an annual Druidic assembly that occurs in one or other of these towns. Titus Livius (Livy) also records the tradition that the Carnutes were one of the tribes that accompanied Bellovesus in his (successful) invasion of Italy during circa 590 BCE that resulted in the sacking of Rome. Like the Bituriges the power of the Carnutes had declined by the time of Caesar to the point where they had become dependents of the Remi.
During the winter of 58–57 BCE Caesar imposed a protectorate over the Carnutes and set-up a member of the ruling clan, Tasgetius as a puppet king. Within three years the Carnutes had assassinated Tasgetius and on February 13th 53 BCE they massacred all the Roman merchants stationed in the town of Caebum and they also killed one of Caesar's commissariat officers. This was the spark that ignited the rebellion of Vercingetorix. Caesar retaliation was swift and he burned Cenabum to the ground whilst all its men were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. Despite this the Carnutes were able to send 12 000 men to the relief of besieged Alesia. They shared in the defeat of the Gauls and compounded the error by attacking the Bituriges-Cubi whom Caesar aided. As a result the Carnutes were forced to submit. As a remainder of their part in the rebellion the town of Cenabum was left as a ruin garrisoned by two Roman legions.
They were eventually pacified under Augustus (though they were never Romanized) and as one of the peoples of Gallia Lugdunensis they were afforded the rank of civitas soda,/em> or foederati which allowed them to retain their own self-governing institutions and enabled them to mint their own coins. During this period Autricum (later Carnutes and then Chartres) was their capital, but in 275 CE emperor Aurelian refounded Cenabum, elevating it to the level of civitas and naming it Aurelianum (the city eventually became Orleans).
Catalauni
The Catalauni were one of the smaller Belgic tribes who occupied the central Plainee de Champagne along the upper valley of the Matrona (Marne). Their territory bordered that of the Tricasses to the south-west and they were another client tribe of the Remi. Their tribal capital was Durocatalaunum (modern-day Châlons-sur-Marne).
Cenomani
The Cenomani were the second of the two main branches of the Aulerci (the second being the Aulerci Brannovices [described above]). They occupied the part of Gaul that in modern times corresponds to eastern Maine in the Sarthe region of France. Their chief settlement was Vindinum of Cindinum which subsequently became Civitas Cenomanorum and corresponds to modern-day Le Mans (which represents an abridgement of Cenomani). According to Julius Caesar's De Bello Gallico they aided Vercingetorix's uprising (52 BCE) by providing 5 000 men to bolster his forces. Under Caesar Augustus they were given the status of a civitas stipendiaria of Gallia Lugdunensis.
Interestingly we have an indication that the Cenomani might once have been a far more powerful tribe that they were at the time of the Roman conquest, in that somewhere around 400 BCE they crossed into north-western Italy (Cisalpine Gaul) and they succeeded in driving the Etruscans southwards and occupied their territory. Cato (as recorded in Pliny's Natural Histories) stated that they settled near Massilia in the territory of the Volcae and their main settlements seem to have been Brixia (modern Brescia) and Verona. Throughout their history both the Cis-Alpine and Gallic Cenomani appear to have been loyal allies of Rome and in 49 BCE (along with the rest of Gallia Translapina) they acquired the rights of Roman citizenship.
Coriosilitae
The Coriosiliatae were a Gaulish tribe of ancient Armorica (Brittany). Little is known about this tribe, though their name can be interpreted on the basis of the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements *korjo- (army) and *silio- (seed) thus the Coriosilitae are 'the people who beget armies'. This would suggest a warrior people; though whether this was actually the case or not may never be known with any real certainty. In terms of territory they resided in the region that represents the east of modern Côtes-d'Amor and it seems as if their principal city was initially Arvil and then Fanum Martis (which today is called Corseul, a name derived from the tribe).
Durocassae
The Durocassae were one of the minor tribes of Gaul who were centred around the modern town of Dreux, France. Based on their location they may well have been a dependent peoples of the Carnutes.
Elusatae
The Elusates were a small Aquitanian tribe who occupied the a region that corresponds to the modern department of Gers (the old county of Condomois). Their principal settlement was at Elusa (modern-day Eauze). They were conquered in 56 BCE by Publius Licinius Crassus, Julius Caesar's lieutenant. It seems that by the 3rd century CE they had increased in power and subsumed their neighbouring tribe, the Sotiates.
Esuvii
The Esuvii are known from Julius Caesar's De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) where they are mentioned as one of the tribes from whom Caesar's lieutenant, Crassus requisitioned corn on his campaign to subdue Normandy and Brittany. Tracking-down precisely who the Esuvii were is something of a challenge. Though the name of the tribe does provide a clue in that it is derived from the name of the god, Esus. Thus the Esuvii are 'the People of Esus' which might indicate that they are the followers of Esus and might not be a single tribe, but a confederation (in the same way as the Helvetii). Caesar also mentions them as a maritime peoples which would put them somewhere around the Normandy coast. Caesar also mentions the Esuvii as being adjacent to the Aulerci it has long been supposed that the Esuvii held the area corresponding to the modern diocese of Seez. However, in his Natural Histories Pliny mentions a people he calls the Bodiocasses in Augustodurus (Bayeux) and the Viducasses in Aregenua (Vieux), who are unknown from the works of Caesar. The Notitia Provinciarum also mention another tribe unknown from the works of Caesar, the Saii whose territory corresponded to Seez. This leaves us with a problem, for if we already have a tribe in the region believed to be the territory of the Esuvii and there are tribes neighbouring them all the way to the Normandy coast, then did the Esuvii exist?
If we take Caesar's statement that the Esuvii were a maritime peoples at face value, then the only way to reconcile the facts is to accept that the people Caesar called the Esuvii are in fact a confederation formed from the Saii, the Baiocasses (whom Pliny mis-named) and the Viducasses. This would explain why Caesar named the Esuvii but did not name any of the sub-tribes.
Helvetii
The Helvetii were the Celtic tribe corresponding to modern-day Switzerland. They appear to have been a mobile peoples who migrated into Switzerland from southern Germany during the first century BCE. By 58 BCE, probably under pressure from Germanic tribes on their northern borders the entire tribe of the Helvetii, under the leadership of their chieftain, Orgetorix were planning to migrate to Gaul. This migration would take them through what was now the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. More specifically, this would take the Helvetii through the territories of the Sequani and the Aedui, both allied to Rome. As a result the Aedui sent emissaries to ask for assistance from the Romans in repulsing the Helvetii. News of this reached Julius Caesar during March 58 BCE. He learnt that a large number of Celtic people known as the Helvetii had gathered on the banks of the Rhone River across from the Roman garrison Lacus Lemannus next to the border of the Roman Province of Gallia Narbonensis. As Caesar writes in his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars): 'Caesar was informed that the Helvetii intended to cross the territories of the Sequani and Aedui. which is not far from that of the Tolosates, a tribe living in the Roman Province.'
Later commentators said that the sudden incursion of these barbarians led Caesar to believe that it was dangerous to have such a warlike tribe so close to a Roman province. It just so happened that the proposed path of the Helvetii would take them through the most northerly part of Gallia Transalpina, Caesar's own province. This was the excuse that Caesar required to march against the Helvetii.
It took the Helvetii three years to prepare for their migration (which was spent buying oxen and weapons and increasing their stores of grain). Orgetorix also attempted to arrange peaceful relations with as many of his neighbours as possible, that the first part of their westward journey would be unopposed. According to Classical reports, Orgetorix attempted to make one alliance to far by promising leadership of the Aedui and Sequani to others. Informants revealed this scheme to the Helvetii and Orgetorix was brought before their council in chains. He escaped and the Helvetii organized a band of men to hunt him down but he died during the chase. Even after the death of Orgetorix the Helvetii remained resolute in their desire to migrate to Gaul. They persuaded their neighbouring tribes the Rauraci, the Tulingi, the Latovici and the Boii to follow their example by joining with them and burning their homes and corps so that they would have nothing to return to. On hearing of the movement of the Helvetii, Caesar mobilized his four legions and made his way from Rome to Geneva, raising further troops on the way. On hearing of Julius Caesar's arrival the Helvetii sent an embassy formed from their leading citizens to negotiate with the Romans. They promised that they would do no harm as they passed through the Roman province and asked permission to continue with their migration.
At this point, the simplest path available to Caesar would have been to take hostages from the tribe in guarantee of their good conduct. Part of Caesar's reaction now may have been due to the memory of the defeat brought upon the consul Lucius Cassius and his army, which had been routed and put under the yoke by the Helvetii in 107 BCE, fifty years earlier. He did not trust these barbarian peoples. However, his own troops were not ready, so he told the envoys that he required more time to consider their request and told them to return on the 13th of April. Meanwhile he had his own troops fortify the banks of the Rhone. On the return of the envoys he told them that it was contrary to the traditions of Rome to allow anyone to pass through Roman territory. Caesar's defences forced the Helvetii to travel towards the lands of the Sequani, through which they gained rights of passage by the intercession of Dumnorix, an Aeduan who had married Orgetorix's daughter. Thus the Helvetii passed peacefully through the realms of the Sequani. But as soon as they reached the territories of the Aedui and Ambarri they began to systematically loot and pillage. The Aedui sent emissaries to Caesar, pleading former alliances and asking for aid. The Allobriges also sent their emissaries. Hearing this, Caesar decided that he must act immediately before the Helvetii entered the lands of Santoni (and thus entered free Gaul). Hearing of Caesar's approach the Helvetii fled across the Saone River in rafts and small boats. However, Caesar caught-up with them when only 3/4 of their numbers had made their way across the river. The remaining quarter (who were mainly of the Tigurini) were caught by Caesar's troops and massacred.
It did not take long for Caesar to catch-up with the remainder of the Helvetii and astonished by his sudden arrival the Helvetii sent an embassy headed by Divico. They informed Caesar the if he left them alone they would settle wherever Caesar wished. But if he insisted on making war with them then Caesar should recall the Roman army's previous defeat at their hands. Caesar for his part demanded hostages and recompense for the Aedui, Ambarri and Allobriges. Divico replied that the Helvetii did not supply hostages and the next day the tribe disbanded their camp. In the first skirmish, against Caesar's cavalry the Helvetii were victorious, but Caesar continued the pursuit until battle was finally joined. The Romans kept charging the enemy for several hours until the Helvetii began to retreat, allowing the Romans to capture their baggage train. The remaining enemy fled into the territory of the Lingones. Caesar sent emissaries to ward the Lingones not to aid the Helvetii, who were forced to surrender due to lack of food. Caesar ordered the Helvetii and their allies to remain where they were and upon his arrival he ordered their surrender. At this time it is said that a clan of the Helvetii known as the Verbigeni (about 6 000 in total) snuck out of the Helvetii camp and made their way to the border of Germania. However, Caesar ordered the Germanic tribes to return them. The tribe was immediately given up to Caesar's hands and he had them slaughtered. The remaining Helvetii were spared and Caesar ordered them (along with their allies the Tulingi, Latovici and Raurici to return to their former lands and re-build them. On one level it would have been far more lucrative for Caesar to take the entire Helvetii into slavery; however, Caesar feared further incursions from Germania into Gaul and the Helvetii (or at least the remaining Helvetii) would act as a buffer and present a vacuum on the borders of his own territory. This being said, of the 370 000 members of the enemy that Caesar records only 130 000 survived the battle and a further 20 000 were killed in the succeeding days. These numbers are undoubtedly exaggerated, but it does show the level of the carnage with the Helvetii and their allies being whittled down to less than a third of their initial size.
After forcing the Helvetii back to their homeland he allowed the friendlier (or at least pacified) Boii allies of the Helvetii to settle in a buffer zone between the Helvetii and the Aedui. The weakening of the other tribes by the predation of the Helvetii left these tribes open to predation by tribes from Germania and this posed Caesar with a problem and and opportunity for further glory ℄ no less than the conquest of Gaul; all done in the name of protecting his Gallic 'friends'.
Despite everything, by 52 BCE the Helvetii had regained some of their former confidence and they sent a quota of 10 000 men to support Vercingetorix's revolt.
Helvii
The Helvii were a Gaulish tribe whose territory corresponds to the southern part of modern Ardeche and their main settlement was Alba (modern-day Aps). In ancient times, the Helvii were probably both more powerful and more numerous than they were by the time of the Roman conquest of Gaul. Indeed, they were one of the tribes (under the leadership of Brennus) who in 390 BCE let the Celtic confederation that sacked Rome. As such they left an indelible mark on the Roman psyche. Along with the Arverni the Helvii also aided the Allobriges in their conflict against the Romans of 123 BCE. This conflict was finally put down in 121 BCE when the legions of Quintus Fabius Maximus defeated the tribe and forced them to submit. As a result the first provincia (Roman province) of Gaul was established which included the Helvetii. Eventually, it seems that the Helvetii formed an alliance with Rome and during Julius Caesar's Gallic campaigns the Helvii provided auxiliaries (auxilia) to bolster the Roman forces. They also supported Caesar during his campaigns against the uprising of Vercingetorix in 52 BCE and it was through their territory that Caesar's forces gained access to the territories of the Arverni.
Lemovices
The Lemovices were the Gaulish tribe/peoples of the modern department of Haute-Vienne and based on the size of their territory they were a powerful tribe. Their main centre was originally at Durotincum (Villejoubert) and then from the time of Augustus Augustoritum Lemovicum (modern Limoges) within the Roman province of Aquitania I. They also had large civic centres at Acitodunum (Ahun), Excingidiacum (Yssandon) and Uxellum (Ussel). Julius Caesar, in his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) names the Lemovices amongst the first tribes that Vercingetorix entices into his alliance for the uprising of 52 BCE. The Lemovices send ten thousand troops to the relief of the Siege of Alesia. According to Caesar the Roman cavalry rout the reinforcements and Sedulius, general and chief of the Lemovices is slain. It is this tribe that lends its name to the Limousin region of south-western central France.
Based on the reconstructed proto-Celtic lexicon the tribe's name can be derived from the elements *lŒmo-/*limo- (elm) and *wik-e/o- (fight) thus the Lemovices are 'they who fight with/for the elm'.
Leuci
The Leuci were a relatively small Belgic tribe of northern Gaul with their lands bordering those of the Mediomatrici. Their territory was in the upper reaches of the Lorraine, somewhere in the reaches between the rivers Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa (Meuse). Their capital was Tullum (modern Toul on the banks of the Moselle). They were supported by their neighbours the Mediomatrici and Catalauni and may at one time have been a client state of the Mediomatrici. In his description of Gallia Belgica Pliny (in his Natural History) describes them as liberi indicating that they enjoyed a certain amount of autonomy under the Roman system of government.
Lexovii
The Lexovii were a Gaulish tribe bordering the Normandy coast to the south of the Seine estuary. Their territory was delimited by Dives, Risle, the hills of Perche and the sea. Strabo notes that they traded extensively with the Mediterranean and the British Isles, trading tin and lead from Cornwall for wine and olive oil. From the archaeological evidence, the Lexovii emerge as a bronze-age peoples in the 7th century BCE. During the 5th century iron begins to appear in the area and this is where more advanced agricultural tools such as the wheeled plough and shovels begin to appear. An agrarian and trading peoples they grew corn, vegetables, as well as vines and flax. The flax was woven into brightly-dyed fabrics. Their main settlement lay at Noviogamus (modern-day Lisieux) and this was protected by an oppidium located at St Desire. This capital was also an important centre of commerce which great wharves and docks (indeed, it was from here that the Lexovii's trade was directed).
With Julius Caesar's invasion in 58 BCE the Gauls form a great confederation to counter-attack, but the main force of the Gaulish army is defeated at Aisne (57 BCE). Driven back, the Gaulish forces are supported by the coastal tribes (amongst them the Lexovii) under the command of Viridorix, chief of the Unelles. Crasssus is sent to subdue them. In 56 BCE the Gauls break out of Crassus' cordon and Litinus Sabinus (along with three legions is sent to confront them). The forces clash head-on (though the site of the battle is not known precisely) and the Gauls are thoroughly defeated; though a fierce resistance continued for some time.
Lingones
Originally a Gaulish tribe inhabiting the headwaters of the rivers Seine and Marne (where the major portion of the tribe remained) somewhere around 400 BCE one branch of the Lingones joined the wave of Celtic tribes (such as the Boii and Senoni) that migrated across the Alps into what subsequently became known as Cis-Alpine Gaul. This branch subsequently settled near the estuary of the Po river in northern Italy. These Ligones may well have been a part of the Celtic confederation that sacked Rome in 390 BCE. After the sack of Rome the Lingones settled south of the Po, along the shore of the Adriatic. This area became known as the Ager Gallicus and even after it had been conquered by the Romans it retained its reputation as something of a frontier zone.
During Julius Caesar's campaigns in north-eastern Gaul (58 BCE) the Romans were supported by supplies of grain from the Gaulish Lingones. In truth the Lingones' primary settlement, Andematunnum (which subsequently became Lingones and then modern Langres, Haute-Marne) held an important strategic position, sitting as it does, upon a rocky promontory above the Marne River was an important economic centre, which gave the Lingones some considerable influence in ancient Gaul. Along with the Aeduii and Remi, the Lingones were Caesar's most loyal supporters. Indeed, during the insurrection of Ambiorix (54/53 BCE) the legions were allowed to recuperate in the area of Andematunnum. Even during the revolt of Vercingetorix in 52 BCE the Lingones were amongst Caesar's allies at the siege of Alesia. The Alesians were great horsemen and it seems likely that at Alesia they re-enforced Caesar's cavalry. Lingonian cavalry were certainly present amongst Julius Caesar's troops during his campaign against the Bellovaci in 51 BCE. However, the greatest aid that the Lingones afforded was undoubtedly in giving Caesar a secure supply base from Andematunnum.
With the arrival of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa as governor of Gaul a new new road system was begun that would aid in consolidating Roman rule north of the Alps. The most important of these roads connected the Gallic capital of Lugdunum (Lyon) with Andematunnum where it split into two branches (one heading to the coast and the other leading to Durocortorum, capital of the Remi (Modern Reims). Thus Andematunnum retained its significance as a channel for merchants. In addition, the realm of the Lingones was included in the occupied Roman territory of Germania Superior and undoubtedly produced food for the garrisons of Mainz. Indeed, in Agrippa's geographical description of Gaul (which survives in Pliny's Natural History the Lingones are described as foederati. They were considered as the allies of Rome but were effectively an independent nation. Even when their neighbours the Aeduans and Treveri revolted in 21 CE the Lingones seem to have remained loyal to Rome.
By the 60s CE Gaul, for the major part, had become Romanized. But, during 68 CE, as an apparent result of the loss of Romanism in Rome under Nero, Caius Julius Vindex a governor of Gaul decided to revolt and was supported by Servius Sulpicius Galba. However, Vindex's levies were no match for the legions of Germania Superior (the legions XXI Rapax, IIII Macedonica and XXII Primigenia), commanded by Lucius Verginius Rufus and supported by the ever-reliable Gallic communities like the Lingones. In Rome, however, Nero lost control of the situation who committed suicide when the Senate declared him an 'enemy of the state'. At this point Galba was recognized as ruler of the Roman world and the legions and tribes who had supported the former regime by suppressing Vindex's revolt now found themselves under suspicion and when Galba replaced their commander with Marcus Hordeonius Flaccus, this was interpreted as a sign of distrust and the troops revolted and they accepted Aulus Vitellius, governor of Germania Inferior as their emperor.
When the Vitellian insurrection became known in Rome, Galba panicked and announced the appointment of a successor. The only result was that the imperial guard also revolted, killed Galba, and put Marcus Salvius Otho on the throne (15 January). Among his earliest measures was to award Roman citizenship to all Lingones, hoping that they would abandon their alliance with Vitellius. It was too late. Probably, one of Vitellius' two armies (subunits of I Germanica, V Alaudae, XV Primigenia, and XVI Gallica, commanded by Fabius Valens), had already passed through Andematunnum. Our sources mention that eight Batavian auxiliary units had a rendez-vous with the Vitellian legions in the country of the Lingones. On 16 April, the Vitellians defeated the army of Otho near Cremona; the defeated emperor committed suicide and the Senate hastily sent congratulations to Vitellius.
Rome itself erupted in civil war, with the most important temple in the Roman world, the Capitol being destroyed during a fight between supporters of Vitellius and Vespasian. It is at this point that a Lingonian, Julius Sabinus proclaimed himself as emperor. Probably this was as a direct result of the general feeling that the empire itself was about to fall and the Lingones (who were thoroughly Romanized by now) felt that they could create their own empire in the west. Sabinus became the leader of the Batavian rebellion and in January 70 CE they achieved their first major success when two legions (I Germanica nad XVI Gallicia) were defeated and surrendered to the Gallic empire. Probably because Vespasian had defeated their leader, Vitellius, those supporters of Vitellius now joined the cause of Sabinus. This is when Sabinus makes a major mistake, by deciding to attack the Sequani, for they remained loyal to Vespasian and succeeded in repulsing the Lingonian attack. At this time Rome itself was slowly recovering from its civil war and as a result the Gallic communities organized a conference in the land of the Remi where they all decided to support the new Roman leadership against the Batavian rebels. At this time the Lingones and Treveri were invited to lay down their weapons.
It seems that many did not lay down their weapons and Quintus Petillius Cerialis was sent with an army consisting of the I Adiutrix, VIII Augusta, and XI Claudia to suppress the revolt, which was done in rapid order. seems that the citizens of Andematunnum feared that the town would be plundered by the approaching troops, but their commander Sextus Julius Frontinus left them unharmed, made sure that no one lost his property, and obtained the gratitude of the Lingones, who surrendered the remaining rebels to him. Though Vespasian ordered the execution of Julius Sabinus the Lingones remained unpunished, though their auxiliary units (at least four units of 500 men) were re-stationed in Britain. The Cohors primae Lingonum equitata an equestrian unit was stationed in Bremenium (High Rochester) and Longovicium (Lanchester). The Cohors secundae Lingonum was stationed at Gabrosentum (Moresby, Cumbria). There is no information about where the Cohors tertiae Lingonum was stationed, but the Cohors quatrae Lingonum was stationed to Britannia's northern forntier and by the end of the fourth century they occupied Segedunum, the most easternmost fort on Hadrian's wall (also known as Wallsend).
By the end of the first century CE the Lingiones were considered in effect to be true Roman citizens and though they had been suspect for a while, due to their part in the Batavian revolt, the emperor Domitian converted the military zone of Germania Superior into a regular province.
Mandubii
The Mandubii are known only from the writings of Strabo and Julius Caesar (both referring to the Gallic wars). They seem to be a confederation of Gaulish peopled living in the areas of modern-day Burgundy and the Jura. Their chief oppidium (fortified town) was Alesia. It is from this that we know them, for it is at Alesia that Vercingetorix made his last stand. Rather than facing Caesar's armies Vercingetorix decides to re-group and holes himself up in the fortified town of Alesia. This leads to a protracted siege where Caesar only has to starve-out the inhabitants. Indeed, matters become so bad that the Mandubian woman and children are ejected from the fortress (possibly in the hope that the Roman lines will part to let them pass. But Caesar effectively traps them in the no-man's-land between the opposing forces and simply allows them to starve. The Romans over-run the town and slaughter everyone inside. After this all references to the Mandubii cease and it is difficult to know whether they were a real tribe or a political entity conjured-up by Julius Caesar (which is why they are not on the map, above). Even an interpretation of the tribe's name seems problematic. Traditionally it has been interpreted as 'horse people' or 'they who trample underfoot' being related to the Latin mannus (horse) or a verbal form such as the Cymric mathru (to trample). However, the name could also be formed from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements: *men-/*man- (thought/mind), *dubu- (black) thus the Mandubi could be a 'dark thought'. A Gaulish joke and not a true people at all.
Mediomatrici
The Mediomatrici were a Belgic tribe of north-eastern Gaul who occupied a region corresponding to the current Moselle. Their chief settlement was at Dividunum which during Roman times became Divodurum (before becoming Mettis and then modern Metz). Rather than being a single grouping the Mediomatrici were probably a confederation of smaller tribes. This is indicated by the name of the tribe, which can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements: *medyo- (middle), *mati- (good) and *rig- (king). Thus the Mediomatrici are the 'good kings of the middle [lands]'. In his History, Tacitus mentions the Mediomatrici as being a people 'in alliance with Rome' and they aided Cerialis in suppressing the Batavian revolt of 70 CE. This was not always the case, for in the rebellion of Vercingetorix (52 BCE) they raised 5 000 fighting men for the cause of the rebellion.
Medulli
The Medulli can be considered as one of the 'lost' peoples of Gaul. They are little known as the Roman references to them are scant and being an Alpine peoples they often fall off the edge of many maps which equate Gaul with modern France. In his Geography Strabo names the Alpine peoples as (journeying from central Gaul to the Alps: 'After the Vocontii come the Iconii and the Tricorii; and after them the Medulli, who hold the loftiest peaks. At any rate, the steepest height of these peaks is said to involve an ascent of a hundred stadia, and an equal number the descent thence to the boundaries of Italy. And up in a certain hollowed-out region stands a large lake, and also two springs which are not far from one another. One of these springs is the source of the Druentia, a torrential river which dashes down towards the Rhodanus, and also of the Durias, which takes the opposite direction, since it first courses down through the country of the Salassi into Cisalpine Celtica and then mingles with the Padus; while from the other spring there issues forth, considerably lower than the region above-mentioned, the Padus itself, large and swift, although as it proceeds it becomes larger and more gentle in its flow; for from the time it reaches the plains it is increased from many streams and is thus widened out; and so, because of the spreading out of its waters, the force of its current is dispersed and blunted; then it empties into the Adriatic Sea, becoming the largest of all the rivers in Europe except the Ister. The situation of the Medulli is, to put it in a general way, above the confluence of the Isar and the Rhodanus.' Thus the Medulli would appear to be the peoples of the high Alps bordering modern Italy. Further evidence, from the Tabula Imperii Romani that the territory of the Meldi lay in the region where the Alpine Val d'Arc merged with the Val d'Isere (not far from modern St-Jean de Maurienne) which suggests that the Meldi may have been one of the 'other tribes' mentioned by Polybius in his Histories who were hostile to the passage of Hannibal's army in 218 BCE.
The Medulli are also known from the second century BCE and are named as a sub-tribe of the Bituriges Vivisci and lived in modern-day Medoc. Whether these Medulli and the Medulli of the Alps are one and the same may never be known with any certainty; however, it's well known that a number of tribes from Gaul moved westwards towards the Alps during the fourth century BCE and the Medulli could have been one of these. The tribe's name is derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic *medu- (mead, drunkenness). Thus the Medulli are 'the drunken ones'. However, in the ancient world this description did not have the same negative connotations that it does today. Many Celtic peoples used to become drunk before going into battle, as attested by the numerous warrior deities whose names contain the elements 'mead' or 'drunkenness'. Thus the Medulli's name almost certainly marks them as a warrior peoples.
Meldi
The Meldi were a Gaulish tribe whose territory was just east of modern Paris on the Marne near Meaux and bordered the Parisii. A mention of the Meldii is made by Julius Caesar in his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) in terms of 40 ships built in their territory which were forced back to prot by a story. The tribe is also mentioned by Strabo and Ptolemy. In his Geography Pliny names the Meldi as liberi which indicates that within the Roman system of government they possessed a considerable degree of self-government; which would indicate that they were loyal supporters of Rome. Their principal settlement was Iatinum (modern-day Meaux in the Seine-et-Marne). The tribe's name is derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic word *meli- (honey). Thus the Meldi are the 'Honey People'.
Menapii
The Menapii were a Belgic tribe whose domain lay on the right bank of the Rhine and was adjacent to the North Sea. They may well have been the original population of this area and the 'Island of the Batavi' may well have been within their domain (the Batavi probably did not arrive in this region until the time of Augustus). At its greatest extend their territory may have extended inland to the Ardennes. The Table of Peutinger mentions a place called Castellum Menapiorum as their principal settlement (which undoubtedly corresponds with modern Cassel). However, the actual extent of the Menapii seems uncertain in that the various ancient authors disagree as to where the boundaries were. This has led some commentators to suggest that the Romans forced the Morini (see below) to cede the eastern part of their realm to the Menapii as punishment for their numerous revolts. This also suggests that Castellum Menapiorum (which would originally have been in the territory of the Morina) was not built until after they migrated into this new district.
During the Belgic resistance of 57 BCE the Menapii contributed 7 000 men (in contrast the Morini contributed 25 000, a good indication of the relative sizes of the tribes at the time). Only later did the Menapii become a larger people than the Morini. In late 56, Caesar marched his army into Brittany. The Veneti had revolted against Roman overlordship, supported by the Morini and Menapii from the Lower Rhine region. Caesar destroyed the Veneti and the next year conquered the Morini and Menapii and virtually exterminated two German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, who had crossed the Rhine to help the rebels. He then bridged the Rhine and raided Germany before crossing the Channel to punish the Britons, who had sent help to their Gallic kin. Despite this, the Menapii eventually seemed to have gained the favour of the Romans by becoming loyal to them.
Morini
The Morini were a Belgic tribe whose domain lay in the region of modern-day Calais. Their westward boundary was the river Canache and on the easy by the river Scheldt. Their main settlements were Gesoriacum/Bononia (Boulogne) and Tarvenna (Thérouanne). During the Belgic resistance of 57 BCE the Marini contributed 25 000 men to this cause. Though the Belgic revolt was quickly put down, in late 56 BCE Caesar marched his army into Brittany to put down the latest revolt by the Veneti. They were supported by the Morini and Menapii from the Lower Rhine region. Caesar destroyed the Veneti and the next year conquered the Morini and Menapii and virtually exterminated two German tribes, the Usipetes and Tencteri, who had crossed the Rhine to help the rebels. Of course, Caesar needed to subdue the Morini as they were the tribe controlling that area of Gaul which was closest to Britain and from which Caesar could create his bridgehead for the invasion of Britain.
Despite being conquered in 56 BCE the Morini joined the revolt of Vercingetorix in 52 BCE. Though nothing is recorded about any retribution taken on the Morini after this event the sudden expansion of the realms of the Menapii indicates that the lands of the Morini were truncated (see above). The Morini tribe's name derives from the reconstructed proto-Celtic *mori- (sea) thus the Morini are 'The People of the Sea'; a fitting epithet for a tribe who lived along the straits of Dover.
Namnetes
The Namnetes were a Gaulish people whose realm lay around the mouth of the Loire and essentially corresponded with the ancient diocese of Nantes. Their primary settlement was Contigwic (modern-day Nantes, which still preserves the name of the tribe). The Romans named the town Condivicum. Like the other Armorican tribes (tribes of Brittany) the Namnetes in effect were an independent republic. However, as a sea-board peoples their fortunes increased as they sided with Rome and by the mid second century Nantes had become on of the most important towns of the Gaulish province.
Nervii
The Nervii count amongst the most powerful of the Belgic tribes of north-western Gaul. It was they whom Julius Caesar considered as the most warlike of the Belgic tribes. Their principal city was Bagacum (modern-day Bavay). Based on the descriptions of the classical authors (and modern archaeological evidence) we know that Nervii culture was essentially a spartan one. It is said that they would not partake of alcoholic beverages or any other such luxury, feeling that the mind must remain clear to be brave. Records indicate that they had no trade or merchant class of any kind, which would lead to the assumption that they had no currency, and were probably not very rich or advanced people.
In 57 BCE the Nervii formed a significant part of the alliance of Belgic tribes that resisted Julius Caesar's invasion. After what essentially became a stand-off (and the Romans seemingly retreated) the alliance broke up. Yet the Nervii, under the command of Boduognatus and aided by the Atrebates and Viromandui continued in their resistance and actually came very close to defeating Caesar. They concealed themselves in the forests and attacked the approaching Roman column at the river Selle (Northern France). Their attack was so quick and unexpected that some of the Romans didn't have time to take the covers off their shields or even put on their helmets. The element of surprise briefly left the Romans exposed. However Caesar grabbed a shield, made his way to the front line, and quickly organised his forces. The two legions who had been guarding the baggage train at the rear arrived and helped to turn the tide of the battle. Caesar says the Nervii were almost annihilated in the battle and is effusive in his tribute to their bravery, calling them "heroes".
Though the ranks of the Nervii might had been thinned by the events of 57 BCE they were not entirely eliminated and in 53 BCE, when Ambiorix and the Eburnoes rebelled the remaining Nervii joined the uprising and besieged Quintus Tullius Cicero - brother of the orator - and his legion in their winter camp until they were relieved by Caesar in person. Based on inscriptions found at Rough Castle Fort on the Antonine Wall in Scotland it seems that in the second century CE the sixth cohort of the Nervii (an infantry unit) were stationed there.
Nitiobriges
This Gallic people (also sometimes known as the Nitiobroges) their territory lay on the left bank of the Garonne river, adjacent to the lands of the Bituriges Vivisci, in the modern region of Agenaiswith their principal settlement at Aginnum (Agen). The Nitiobriges seem to have arrived in their territory near the end of the 4th century BCE (presumably travelling down from the north). They probably wrested the land from the Celtiberian peoples who had lived there previously. With Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul, circa 56 BCE (where Caesar made a large anticlockwise spiral through Gaul) the lands of the Nitiobriges became of strategic value as a bridgehead into Aquitaine. Julius Publius Crassus, Caesar's lieutenant attains an agreement from the Nitobriges, allowing the Roman legions to cross their lands into Aquitaine. As a result the Roman senate grant the Nitiobriges (or at least their leader at the time, Ollovico) the title of 'friend'. Relations with Rome seem to have been warm until 52 BCE when they send a quota of warriors to support Vercingetorix's rebellion. These troops are led by Teutomatos, Ollovicio's son who makes his way to Gergove, site of the first major conflict between Vercingetorix and Caesar. Teutomates seems to have been over-confident for he made camp and was surprised in his tent by Roman soldiers. Teutomatos himself only managed to escape by jumping half-naked on his steed and riding away.
Despite this setback relations between the Nitiobriges and the Romans seem to have continued warmly and recent excavations have shown numerous large, expensive, buildings in the region, indicating that the Nitiobriges continued to prosper under Roman rule.
Osimii
The Osimii are a Gaulish peoples of ancient Armorica (Brittany). They are first mentioned by the Greek navigator, Pytheas who, writing in the fourth century BCE names them as Ostinioi and locates their territory on the coast near a 'cape Kabaïon' which is probably one of either pointe de Penmarc'h or pointe du Raz. Their territory corresponds to the current Breton region of Finistere and the western part of the Côtes-d'Armor. Their principal settlement was known as Vorgium Osismiorum which has been identified as modern Carhaix. Another of their cities was Vorganium and they had an oppidium in Yaudet.
Like the other Armorican peoples the Osimii provide considerable resistance to Julius Caesar during his conquest, though they are conquered in 57 BCE. However, during 56 BCE they come to the aid of their neighbouring Veneti during the Venetian Revolt. This revolt is resolutely crushed, but it does not seem that the fate of the Veneti befell the Osimii as, in 52 BCE they were able to send re-enforcement to aid Vercingetorix who was besieged in Alesia. Which is not to say that the Osimii were not punished for their roles in the various revolts. They were ascribed one of the most unfavourable statuses of Roman governance, that of civitates stipendiariae which implies that they were forced to pay higher taxes and provide soldiers for the Roman army.
The name of this tribe is probably related to the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *ouxselo- (high). Thus the Osimii may be 'the highest' or possible 'the furthest' referring to their location at the furthest end of Armorica.
Parisii
The Parisii (sometimes rendered Quarisii) were a Gaulish peoples living on the banks of the river Sequana (Seine) from the middle of the third century BCE. An offshoot of this tribe is also attested north-eastern Britain. Their main settlement (and oppidium) was Lutetia Parisiorum which became an important city in the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis before ultimately becoming the modern city of Paris. Recent excavations have revealed extensive urbanization and warrior tombs at Nanterre and it is now thought that this site (which would afford a better defensive position than the lowlands of the Seine was probably the location of the Parisii's oppidium. The Parisii are archaeologically unusual in that they performed 'wheeled burials' in which the deceased was placed in a wheeled vehicle before being interred beneath a square barrow and such burials are found in the domains of the Gaulish and Brythonic Parisii.
As far as can be said, the Parisii occupied a territory ceded by the Senones (to whom they were related). Little is known of them from Classical authors until 52 BCE (the rebellion of Vercingetorix) which suggests that they accepted Roman rule peacefully. However, they mustered 8000 troops to come to the aid of Vercingetorix besieged in Alesia. After this date they must have accepted Roman rule once more (and probably became allied to the Romans), otherwise their main settlement would not have grown into a major Romano–Celtic city.
The tribe's name can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *kwar-je/o (make) with the the P-Celtic substitution of P for the older Kw (Q) sound giving *par-je/o thus the name Parisii can be translated as: 'the craftsmen'. One of the most famous archaeological finds from the realm of the Parisii is the Pilier des nautes (Pillar of the Boatmen), a square-second bas-relief which bears the depictions of several deities (both Roman and Gaulish). Of these we have the Roman deities, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, Fortuna, Castor and Pollux and Vulcan along with the Gaulish gods: Esus, Tarvos Trigaranos, Smertrios and Cernunnos. The pillar itself can be dated to circa 14 CE as it bears an inscription to emperor Tiberius.
Petrucorii
The Petrucorii were a Gaulish peoples whose domain corresponds to the modern department of the Dordogne in France (more specifically they dwelt in the region between the Dordogne and Vézère rivers. Their principal settlement was at Vesonna (Périgeux). Archaeological evidence suggests that they establish an oppidium at Curade somewhere around 70 BCE (which may be in response to Roman incursions into Gaul). The Petrucorii were an Aquitanian peoples whom Julius Caesar conquered in 56 BCE via an incursion through the territory of the Nitiobriges. The Petrucorii may have acquiesced readily, though in 52 BCE (in common with most of the Gaulish tribes) they raised a force of 5 000 men in support of Vercingetorix (who was besieged in Alesia at the time). After this the Petrocorii seem to have settled into the Pax Romana and as an agrarian peoples they seem to have thrived under Roman rule.
The tribe's name has been interpreted variously as being derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements *kwetru- (four) and *korjo- (army) giving 'The four Armies' or from the Greek πετροσ (stone) giving us 'the stone peoples'.
Pictavii
The Pictavii (or Pictones) were a Gaulish tribe dwelling in the areas of the modern French departments of Vienne and Deux-Sèvres (Haut-Pitou). This tribe seems to share its name with the Pictii of Scotland. However, the name Pictii is simply a Roman description of these peoples (meaning literally 'painted men') and does not represent a tribal name. However the name of the Pictavii may be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *mrixto- (variegated, diversified, painted) which could be interpreted as 'admixture', suggesting that they may be an aggregation of peoples coming together under one rule. This suggestion is given some credence from what is known about the governance of the Pictavii which seems to be modelled on the Celtic royal system. Where there is a single king of tribal leader whose power is limited by a council of warrior chiefs. Certainly this seems to have been the case for Duratios the king of the Pictonii during the time of Julius Caesar's conquest. This peoples' principal settlement was Lemonum (place of elms) which corresponds to modern-day Poitiers; an oppidium located on the vast plain at the confluence of the Clain and Boivre rivers.
The Pictavii would have been one of the tribes threatened by the western migration of the Helvetii towards the territory of the Santones circa 60 BCE. This formed one of the excuses used by Caesar in his invasion of Gaul. However, the threat posed by the Helvetii would have made the Pictavii receptive to Caesar's invasion. Indeed, just like their neighbouring Santones the Pictonii provided Julius Caesar with a fleet in 56 BCE and even during the time of Vercingetorix's insurrection in 52 BCE their chief, Duratios remained faithful to caesar though the warrior leaders of the tribe did supply Vercingetorix with 8 000 men. This split the Pictonii and the faction loyal to Vercingetorix joined the chief of the Andecavi who moved towards Lemonum to besiege Duratios. For his part Duratios sent a messenger to the Roman legate Caius Caninius who came to his aid from the territory of the Ruteni. But this was only a small force and proved of little value. However, the legate Caius Fabius went to the aid of Caius Caninus and the Pictonii civil war was averted.
As the Pictonii (in the main at least) had been loyal to the Romans it seems as if they gained territory at the expense of the Andecavi in the Vendée. The Pictavii prospered from the Roman presence (at least in terms of architectural improvements to Poitiers) it seems that they became only partially Romanized and retained much of their original culture. During Roman times the Pictonii, as a naval peoples, were also one of the major traders with the British Isles, using their port of Ratium (modern-day Rezé) as the base for this trade.
Redones
The Redones were an Armorican (Brittany) tribe who dwelt in the region corresponding to the Ile-et-Vilaine. Their principle settlement was established at Condate (a Gaulish word for confluence) sited between the Ille and Vilaine rivers. This city later became Redon. The tribe also lends its name to Rennes. Early in the 1st century BCE the Redones adopted the Greek and Roman practice of issuing coinage. Their coins are distinctive, depicting a charioteer whose pony bears a human head. This image relates directly to the name of the tribe which can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *rŒdo- (chariot). Thus the Redones are 'the charioteers'.
The Redones joined the Gaulish coalition against Rome in 57 BCE (which was suppressed by Julius Caesar's lieutenant, Crassus). Though this did not subdue the Redones, for the subsequent year (56 BCE) they captured a number of Roman emissaries, holding them hostage, an event that obliged Julius Caesar to intervene in Armorica and suppress the rebels. Then in 52 BCE the Redones responded to Vercingetorix's call for re-enforcements. Eventually the Redones were subdued and in the first century CE Condate became Condate Riedonum, capital of the civitas riedonum.
Remi
The Remi were one of the largest of the Belgic tribes who occupied a territory corresponding to the modern Champagne plain by the southern fringes of the Ardennes forest, lying between the Mosa (Meuse) and Matrona (Marne) rivers. Their principal settlement was at Durocortum (modern-day Reims) which was the second-largest oppidium of Gaul. They were exemplary horsemen and were famed for their cavalry. In alliance with some of the western tribes of Germania they appear to have been repeatedly engaged in warfare against their western neighbours the Parisii and Senones.
Under their rulers Iccius and Andecombogius the Remi allied themselves with Julius Caesar and were one of the few tribes to remain loyal to him throughout the entire span of the Gallic Wars and represent the most pro-Roman of all the peoples of Gaul.
Ruteni
The Ruteni were a Gaulish peoples located to the south of France's Central Massif. Their domain extended from the heights of Aubrac in the north down to the Agout river in the south; a region which today covers the department of Aveyron and a significant portion of the Tarn. During the first Roman incursion into Gaul (circa 120 BCE) the southern part of the Ruten territory came under the control of the new Roman provincia (province). Thus we have Ruteni provincia whose oppidium was Segodunum (Roedz) on one hand and the independent Rudeni on the other, who were allied to the powerful Arverni, fighting at their side during the Gallic wars. According to Julius Caesar the Ruteni were famous for their archers, a contingent of whom were provided to Vercingetorix during his revolt and a further 12 000 Ruteni warriors were provided for the relief of Alesia.
A recent discovery of the remains of a large oppidium from the mid first century BCE in the forest of Palanges, near Laissac in Montmerlhe has led some archaeologists to the belief that this site was the true stronghold of the Gallic Ruteni. Because of the aid offered by the Ruteni in a number of the Gaulish revolts this may well have been occupied by the Romans after the conquest to keep an eye both on the Ruteni and the Arverni.
Etymologically, the name Ruteni can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *rowdo- (red, from which is derived the Cymric rhudd). Thus the Ruteni are 'The Red ones'. This may come from the ancient Celtic practice of caking the hair in coloured clay (which was generally either white or red).
Santones
The Santones were a Gaulish peoples who occupied the area of Saintonage, western Gaul and whose primary settlement was at Mediolanum (modern-day Saintes), north of the river Gironde. These were the peoples whose territory was threatened by the migration of the Helvetii (58 BCE). In thanks for Julius Caesar's intervention against the Helvetii the Santones (a maritime peoples) provided Caesar with a fleet to aid in his Gallic campaigns of 56 BCE (just as their neighbours the Pictavii did). Little else is known about the Santones, which suggests that they were faithful allies of Rome and therefore not worthy of further mention.
The tribe's name may be related to the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *sani- (different, which is related to the Old Irish sain). This suggests that either they were one of the first Celtic peoples to arrive in the region and thus were 'different' from the local populace, or they were part of the local population who survived Celtic colonization, were labelled with a Celtic name and eventually became Celticized.
Segovellauni
The Segovellauni were a small Gaulish tribe sandwiched between the Allobriges in the north, the Vocontii to the east, the Tricastii to the east and the Helvii to the west. They are first mentioned in Polybius' History where they were Hannibal's escorts through Allobrigian territory and kept the Carthaginians safe. Like many of their neighbours the Segovellauni would have been conquered during the first Roman incursion into Gaul (circa 120 BCE). Later, during Julius Caesar's Gallic wars the Segovellauni were the allies of Caesar (probably due to their precarious positions sandwiched between so many other belligerent tribes).
The tribe's name can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements: *sego- (force) and *welo- (good, desirable). Thus the tribe's name can be interpreted as 'The Beneficent Force'.
Segusiavi
This Gaulish tribe inhabited the region corresponding to the modern Lyonnais and Forez. Their principal settlement was at Forum Segusiavorum (modern-day Feurs in the Loire). The Segusiavi were a relatively small tribe, and their territory represented the frontier of the Roman provincia (province) established in 120 BCE. They are first mentioned by Strabo as merchants who are practiced in river navigation. Their primary (tutelary) deity appears to have been Segeta (whose name means 'The Fecund One'). Thus the Segusavi are 'the people of Segeta'. From the records it seems as if they were a client peoples of the Aedui and act with them in all their dealings with Rome. After the fall of Alesia the Segusavi break with the Aedui and firmly nail their political colours to the mast of Rome.
Senones
The Senones were a Gaulish tribe who occupied the area of the Sénonais (corresponding to the departments of the Yonne, Marne, Seine-et-Marne and the Côte d'Or). Their principal settlement was at Agendicum (modern-day Sens). The Senonnes tribe was the tribe of Brennus, who plundered Delphi in 260 BCE. They were probably opposed to Julius Caesar during his Gallic campaigns, for he appointed a puppet king, Cavarinus as their leader. In 53 BCE the Senones expelled him and this led to hostilities with Caesar which continued until 51 BCE when, under the leadership of Drappes they threatened the Roman provincia. However, Drappa was capture, but starved himself to death. After this point the Senones essentially vanish from recorded history, though they are later mentioned as a people of the Roman province of Gallia Lugdunensis.
In about 400 BCE, in common with many of their neighbouring tribes the Senones ventured across the Alps into Italy. This branch of the tribe (named by Polybius as Ibaaves, Senones) made their way over the Alps and, having driven out the Umbrians, settled on the east coast of Italy from Ariminum to Ancona, in the so-called ager Gallicus, and founded the town of Sena Gallica (Sinigaglia), which became their capital. In 391 they invaded Etruria and besieged Clusium. The Clusines appealed to Rome, whose intervention, accompanied by a violation of the law of nations, led to war, the defeat of the Romans at the Allia (18 July 390) and the capture of Rome. For more than 100 years the Senones were engaged in hostilities with the Romans, until they were finally subdued (283) by P Cornelius Dolabella and driven out of their territory. Nothing more is heard of them in Italy; though it is probable that they formed part of the bands of Gauls who spread themselves over the countries by the Danube, Macedonia and Asia Minor.
Sequani
The Sequani were a Gaulish people who controlled a region that corresponds to the modern Franche-Comté and part of Burgundy between the Saone and Rhone rivers, the Jura and the Vosges. They were allies of the Helvetii and were opposed to the Aeudi. They seem to have settled in this region during the fourth century BCE, raised to ascendancy during the third and second centuies BCE and then slowly lost their dominant position. In an attempt at regaining their previous power they took the part of the Arverni against the Aedui and hired mercenaries from Germania under Ariovistus to cross the Rhine and help them (71 BC). But although his assistance enabled them to defeat the Aedui, the Sequani were worse off than before, for Ariovistus deprived them of a third of their territory and threatened to take another third.
The Sequani then appealed to Caesar, who drove back the Germans (58 BC), but at the same time obliged the Sequani to surrender all that they had gained from the Aedui. This so exasperated the Sequani that they joined in the revolt of Vercingetorix (52 BC) and shared in the defeat at Alesia.
The Sequani's capital was Vesontio (Besancon) and some of their other primary cities were Amagetobriga (Mandeure), Segobodium (Seveux) and Luxovium (Luxeuil). During the reign of Augustus, the district of Sequania became part of Gallia Belgica. But unlike the other Belgic tribes the Sequani did not join the Gallic revolt against Rome by Gaius Julius Civilis and Julius Sabinus during the time of Nero. Indeed, the Sequani drove back the forces of Sabinus and for this reason they were afforded a triumphal arch at Vesontio.
Sibusates
Though mentioned in Caesar's De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) there is almost no other evidence that this tribe actually existed and we are left with toponymic evidence. Based on etymological similarity it is possible that the Sibusates were the peoples of the Sobusse, dwelling between the rivers Dax and Bayonne.
Silvanecti
The Silvanecti were a minor Belgic tribe in the area of the Valois, Île-de-France, with their principal settlement being at Augustomagus (Senlis). Pliny, in this Natural Histories calls these peoples the Ulmanetes or Ulbanectes and describes them as liberi; indicating that they enjoyed a certain amount of autonomy within the Roman province of Gallia Belgica II. This indicated that the tribe's true Celtic name would have been something like Ulvanectoi but this was changed by the Romans, partly because of mis-hearing and partly because of the forests that covered this people's territory. In his De Bello Gallico Julius Caesar mentions this tribe and says that they were in effect a client state fo the Suessiones and fought with them as part of the Belgic alliance. It may be that after the defeat of the Belgic tribes the Silvanecti/Ulvanectoi were established with their own independent territory.
Sotiates
The Sotiates were a fairly minor tribe whose territory was centred around Sos in the modern department of Lot-en-Garonne. They are known principally as the first tribe that Julius Publius Crassus, Caesar's lieutenant, encounters as he moves from the territory of the Nitiobriges and into Aquitaine. According to the records the Sotiates put-up a spirited and determined defence, mostly using their cavalry and centred around their principal oppidium (Sos). Indeed, recent excavations have shown that it was once a Gallic stronghold. Crassus finally captured Sos and this opened-up the defeat of Aquitaine. During Roman times (possibly due to their resistance) the star of the Sotiates was in the wane and by 300 CE they had been absorbed into the neighbouring Elusatae.
Suessiones
The Suessiones were a Belgic tribe dwelling in a region corresponding to the modern diocese of Soissons (effectively the greater part of the department of Aine). Caesar mentions that the Suessiones were in conflict with the neighbouring Bellovaci, though by the time of Caesar the Suessiones may have become the more powerful and had client tribes in the form of the Meldi and the Silvanecti (as indicated by territorial and numismatic evidence). In his De Bello Gallico (On the Gallic Wars) Julius Caesar recounts that the Remi told him that the Suessiones were a tribe in some kind of political union with themselves; that their lands were widespread and productive; and that in living memory, their king Divitiacus had exercised sovereignty over the whole region and even parts of Britain. The town mentioned by Caesar as their capital, ''Noviodunum'' ("New Town"), is probably the modern Soissons. The Suessiones join with the other Belgic tribes in their resistance to Caesar. Knowing this and believing their principal settlement of Noviodunum to be essentially undefended Caesar marches into their territory with the aim of taking the oppidium by storm. But he could not storm the town because of the defences and the ditches surrounding it. However, Caesar has his engineers build siege engines and span the ditches. Seeing these massive works erected the inhabitants of the city send out emissaries requesting a surrender. Caesar receives as hostages the first men of the state, including the king, Galba himself he admitted the Suessiones to a surrender and marched on the neighbouring Bellovaci.
Suetri
The Suetri were one of the minor Gaulish tribes of the Alpes Maritimes, with their territory centred around Salinae (modern-day Le Salins), as stated in Ptolemy's Geography. They are also named on the 'Trophy of the Alps' a Roman monument erected in 5 BCE at the village of La Turbie both to commemorate the conquest of the Alps and the submission of 44 Ligurian tribes during Augustus' campaigns in 25, 16 and 15 BC and to mark the boundary between Italy and Gaul. The inscription is severely faded on the original monument, but it was recorded by Pliny in his Natural History and records a dedication to Augustus as well as a list of the subdued tribes, amongst whom is the Suetri.
Tarbelli
The Tarbelli were a tribe of south-western Gaul who, according to Ptolemy's Geography had territories that extended from the borders of the Bituriges Vivisci westwards to the Pyrenees. If this is correct then the territory of the Tarbelli included the realms of the Cocosates and the Sibusates. In fact, during the time of Julius Caesar's invasion the Tarbelli were separated from the Bituriges Vivisci by the Boiates (whom Caesar did not mention). It does seem likely that under the influence of the Romans several smaller tribes (with the Boiates amongst them) were probably annexed to the Tarbelli and grouped with them and even in Caesar's time certain tribes (such as the Cocosates and Sibusates) may have been part of the Tarbelli. In his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) Caesar names the Tarbelli as being one of the tribes who surrendered peacefully to Crassus after his decisive battles with the Sotiates and Cantabri. The Tarbelli's main settlement was at Aquae Tarbellicae (modern-day Dax).
Tarusates
The Tarusates were a tribe of ancient Aquitane whose domain lay in the region of Aire (Atura). Some commentators believe that the district of Tursan in Aire preserves their name, whilst others place them in Tartas some 25 km north-east of Dax. In his De Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) Julius Caesar describes his lieutenant, Crassuss' campaigns. After the defeat and surrender of the Sotiates Crassus marches against the Vocates and Tarusates. Fearful of the Roman advance they call on their Iberian allies to come to their aid. An experienced contingent comes to the aid and for the first time the Romans find themselves fighting against troops who know Roman tactics. Instructed by the Iberians they construct a Roman-like camp which Crassus is unable to besiege, mainly (according to Caesar) because he is too far from his support line. Rather, he plans a direct assault on the camp. Confident of their fortifications the Gauls remain within their camp. The first Roman assault was driven back by the Volcates and Tarusates' projectiles. However, Crassus saw that the camp was weaker in the rear than the front so he had his reserve cohorts approach in a hidden manner. They easily overcame the few troops they encountered and entered the Aquitani camp. As a result the Gaulish alliance collapsed and the soldiers fled into the countryside where they were destroyed by the pursuing Roman cavalry. This victory marked the end of free Aquitania.
The Tarusates are probably the same peoples as the Aturenses who are mentioned in later writings but do not occur in Caesar's de Bello Gallico. Of course, it could well be that Caesar simply mis-heard the tribe's name (hearing reports based at second and third hand).
Tergestini
The Tergestini were a peoples of Cis-Alpine Gaul who inhabited the region around Trieste in north-western Italy. Their main settlement was at Tergeste (modern Trieste) to which Julius Caesar (the governor of Gallia Cisalpina from circa 60 BCE) granted the status of 'Colony'. Indeed, the city itself had been under the governance of the Roman republic since their conquest of northern Italy circa 177 BCE.
Tigurini
These peoples of ancient Switzerland are known to inhabit the region of the Avenches. In 109 BCE they joined forces with the Cimbri and Teutones advanced into Gaul and then broke off from the main group to raid Roman territories on the banks of the Rhone river. Then, in 107 BCE they lured the Roman consul Lucius Cassius Longinus into an ambush and killed him. However, the tables were turned when the consul Quintus Servilius Caepio defeated the Tigurini and looted their chief sanctuary at Tolosa.
Again in 102 BCE an alliance of the Cimbri, Teutones and Tigurini threatened Rome. The Teutones were decisively defeated by Marius' troops at Aquae Sextiae (Aix), but the Cimbri defeated Quintus Lutatius Cadulus at Adiege. However, the combined forces fo Marius and Catulus eventually defeated the Cimbri at Vercallae in 101BCE. At the same time Lucius Cornelius Sulla drove-off the Tigurini to the eastern Alps.
After this nothing is heard of the Tigurini until 58 BCE when (as related in Constantine Porphyrogenitus' The Embassies they join the Helvetii in that tribe's incursion into Gaul. As the weaker element of the coalition Julius Caesar has Labenius attack the Tigurini. He tackles them unawares on the river bank and scatters the major part into disarrayed flight. The location of the Tigurini to Avenches is also based on an inscription PAG TIGOR which can be reconstructed as PAG(i) TIGOR(iorum) discovered near Avenches and south of lake Morat.
Treveri
The Treveri were a Belgic tribe whose territory corresponded with the lower valley of the Moselle, within the southern fringes of the vast Arduenna Silva (Ardennes Forest). on the north, west and south by the Belgic tribes the Tungri, the Remi and the Mediomatrici, respectively, who were friendly to Rome, while to the east were the Germanic Vangiones. Their tribal capital Colonia Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Germany) was also the site of a Roman colony, and the provincial capital of Gallia Belgica itself. Caesar in his de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) notes that the Treveri were a warlike peoples known for their horsemanship and he tells us that they possessed the best Cavalry in Gaul.
In 57 BCE the Treveri were part of the Belgic alliance that withstood Caesar. The alliance was broken at the 'Battle of Sabis', though some of the tribes (including the Treveri) fought on. At this time it also seems that the tribes of the Condrusi and the Eubrones become dependents of the Treveri. However, the Treveri soon sent envoys to Caesar to sue for peace and recuse themselves from continued hostilities. By 54 BCE an internal struggle had developed within the Treveri between Cingetorix who was pro-Roman and Indutionarus who was more anti-Roman. However Indutiomarus persuaded his people to join the revolt led by Ambiorix of the Eburones in 54 BC, declared Cingetorix a public enemy and confiscated his property. This led to the Treveri and their allies actually gaining victory over a legion. Meanwhile, Cingetorix presented himself to Caesar's legate Titus Labienus, who defeated and killed Indutiomarus in a cavalry engagement. Cingetorix was forcibly established as their ruler and it is said at this time that the leading families of the Treveri crossed the Rhine to settle amongst the tribes of Germania. Almost a quarter of a century later, in 30 BCE the Treveri revolt again, a move that forced Augustus to focus his attentions on consolidating Rome's hold in Gaul. After the Treveri are subdued they are forcibly integrated into the Roman Empire, thereby losing their political independence. The re-organization of Gaul placed the Treveri in Gallia Belgica and Augusta Tevarorum (Trier) is established as a major provincial administration centre complete with its own legion.
Triboci
The Triboci were a tribe from Germania (that is, they came from the Roman province of Germania and were not necessarily 'Germans'), whose name suggests that they were a Celtic peoples. In 58 BCE they were part of the host of the Suebian leader, Ariovistus who viewed north-eastern Gaul as a territory that was rightfully his. When matters came to a head Caesar estimates that 120 000 Germanic warriors crossed the Rhine to occupy the lands of the Sequani and harass the Aedui. Somewhere around Bensançcon the two armies meet (about September 58 BCE) where the Suebi are massacred and driven back across the Rhine where they are harassed by the Ubii. Strabo, however, mentions that the Triboci had taken up their abode in the country of the Mediomatrici. This may indicate that there were two components to the Triboci people and makes pinpointing their early territory virtually impossible. However by about 10 BCE it is known that the Triboci were centred around the city of Argentoratum (silver fort). This originated on an island between two branches of the Rhine's tributary, the Helella. Augustus' stepson Drusus senior (Nero Drusus, died 9 BC) may have established a garrison of auxiliaries there. From soon after AD 16 until 43 a fortress existed, forming part of the military command (subsequently province) of Germania Superior (Upper Germany); it was occupied by a legion, and later by legionary detachments, who constructed the first basalt wall (to supplement an earthen bank). After the city's destruction in the Gallo-German rebellion of 69-70 AD, Argentorate resumed its role as a legionary headquarters in c 80 (shortly before Upper Germany was elevated to the status of a province).
The name of the Triboci can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements: *trīs- (three) and *boglo- (waters). Thus the Triboci are the 'peoples of the three waters' which may relate to the situation of Argentoratum and suggests that this might have been their original homeland.
Tricasses
The Gaulish tribe of the Tricasses occupied territory that corresponds to most of the modern day region of the Aube are actually one of the lesser-known tribes. Like their neighbours the Remi and Senones they were undoubtedly loyal to Rome. However, Julius Caesar does not mention them at all in his de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) and both Pliny in his Natural History and Ptolemy in his Geography do little more than name them. Their main settlement was probably Tricasses (modern Troyes), which in the first century CE becomes Augustobona, a Gallo-Roman city. It holds a strategic position as the meeting point of several Roman roads, the most important of which is the Via Agrippa that connects Milan to Boulogne.
The name of the tribe can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements: *trīs- (three) and *kasso- (curly, woven) which gives 'thrice-woven' which might suggest that they were an agglomeration of people merged or 'woven' into a single tribe. There is also *kassi- (hatred, hate) and a variant of *tri- may act as an intensive particle thus the Tricasses might also be interpreted as the 'Great Haters' or the 'Most Hateful' which would suggest an aggressive, warlike, nature.
Tricastini
The Tricastini were a minor tribe living in the department of the Drôme between the Rubion and Aygues on the banks of the Rhone. This tribe is mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography as members of Gallia Narbonensis with a principal settlement at Neomagus. They are also mentioned by Livy in his History of Rome as a territory that the Gauls migrating into Italy passed through. They are also mentioned as part of the path that Hannibal took through Gaul on his way to Italy.
Sometime during the first century CE it seems that the Tricastini were subsumed into the tribe of the Segalauni and vanish from history.
Tungri
The Tungri were a Belgic tribe who occupied the lands of the northern Arduenna Silva (Ardennes Forest) along the lower valley of the Meuse. Though facing the tribes of Germania to the north and east they were supported by the Belgic Nervii on the west and by the Remi and Treveri to the sough. Their primary settlement was at Atuatuca (modern-day Tongeren). They are mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum an early 5th century CE document that contained a transcription of every military and governmental post in the late Roman Empire. This documents notes that the First Cohort of the Tungri was stationed at Verovicium (modern Housesteads, Northumberland) along Hadrian's Wall; though the first mention of them comes from a stone at the Carrawburgh fort dated to 122–138 CE. In all the Tungrian cohort is mentioned in ten inscriptions and as well as Carrawburgh and Housesteads they were also at the forts of Chesterholm, Chesterholm and Castlecary on Hadrian's wall.
Turoni
The Turoni were a Gallic tribe of the area of Touraine in the Loire valley (a region corresponding to the department of Indre-et-Loire). One of their principal settlements was at Turons (modern Tours), which Ptolemy in his Geography names as Caesarondunum. During Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul, it appears as if the Turoni supported Caesar's actions. However, he did post two legions amongst the lands of the Turoni. Ostensibly this was to intimidate their neighbours the Carnutes, though it was undoubtedly also to keep the Turoni in line. Indeed, during Vercingetorix's revolt of 52 BCE the Turoni are named as amongst the tribes that form the core of Vercingetorix's support. They also levy an additional eight thousand troops for the abortive relief of besieged Alesia.
The Turoni rebelled again during 21 BCE when they objected to heavy Roman taxation under a nobleman named Julius Sacrovir and Julius Florus. A mixed force from the XX Valeria Victrix and the XX! Rapax, under the command of an officer from the I Germannica was dispatched to suppress this rebellion. Despite this, the City of Turons itself seems to have enjoyed a special statute as a free city, as demonstrated by the discovery of an inscription which states CIVITAS TURONORUM LIBERI. Perhaps this was in payment for the cavalry troops that the Turoni provided to the empire.
Ulvanectoi
See the entry on the Silvanecti, above.
Unelli
The Unelli were a small Armorican (Brittany) tribe who dwelled in the region of Cotentin and their primary city was Cosedia (modern Coutances). During the winter of 57 BCE the Armorican peoples present an united front to repel the encroaching Romans. Caesar returned to Gaul in the spring, after ordering warships to be built and commissioning crew for them, and defeated the Veneti in a naval battle. Quintus Sabinus was sent with three legions to isolate the Unelli, Coriosolites, and Lexovii, who were led by a single chieftain, Viridovix. When he arrived in the territory of the Unelli, he established his camp, and within a few days found a large army of Celts encamped two miles away. In addition to the rebel tribes under the command of Viridovix of the Unelli, there were also Celtic mercenaries from throughout Gaul. The Romans camped and each day the Celts would ride up to taunt them. Sabinus, seeing that the morale should not be allowed to diminish any further, tricked the Celts into believing that the Romans were frightened and about to flee. This initiated a hurried attack from the Celts. The Romans, armed and waiting, made a sortie from two of the gates, catching the breathless Celts unawares. Most of the Celts were killed on the spot; others retreated and were rounded up by the Roman cavalry. Only a few escaped. The remaining Armorican tribes, hearing of both Caesar's and Sabinus' victories, immediately sued for peace. During Vercingetorix's revolt of 52 BCE the Unelli along with the Caletes provide a quota of 6 000 troops for the relief of Alesia.
As a people the Unelli are also mentioned in Pliny the Elder's Natural History as well as Ptolemy's Geography.
Vellavi
The Vellavi were a Gaulish peoples of the region of Le-Puy-en-Velay in the region of the Auvergne (on the border of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis. They had an oppidium at Roession (Ruessium 'well situated') which corresponds to modern Saint-Paulien. In his de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) Julius Caesar notes that the Vellavi were a client peoples of their powerful neighbours the Arverni. Thus they would have supported Caesar in his conquest of Gaul, though they would have supported Vercingetorix (the most famous son of the Arverni) in his revolt of 52 BCE. In his Natural History Pliny describes the Vellauvi as: liberi, indicating that they enjoyed a number of freedoms under the Roman system of government. It may well be that their ties with the Arverni were severed to reduce the power of their large neighbours.
Veliocassi
The Veliocassi were a Belgic tribe who dwelt in the region of Vexin (which lies in the modern department of Seine-Maritime). Their main settlement was Rotomagus (modern Rouen). This tribe is known from Julius Caesar's de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) as part of the Belgic confederation of tribes which he faced (and ultimately conquered) in 56 BCE. They were, however, only a small people and could only send 3 000 men in 52 BCE to aid Vercingetorix at the siege of Alesia. Then, in 51 BCE they also partook in the final revolt of the Belgic peoples under the leadership of the Bellovaci.
Veneti
The Veneti of Gaul were an Armorican (Breton) tribe, living in the region of Morbihan. A seafaring people, their largest settlement (and probably their capital was Dariotitum (modern-day Vannes) — this is mentioned in Ptolemy's Geography. [There were also Veneti in Italy, the peoples who gave their name to Venice; however these were an Italic peoples and the similarities in names may be coincidental.]
In his de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars), Julius Caesar states of the Veneti: 'By their considerable navy, their recognized nautical superiority and their trade with the island of Britain the Veneti had become a very powerful people, whose authority extended along the Armorican coast. They had a number of ports on this open and stormy sea which were distant from one another and demanded tribute from all navigators obliged to pass through their waters.' The Veneti were opposed to Caesar's invasion and joined the Armorican alliance against the Romans. However, a number of the Veneti's neighbours(such as the Pictones) were opposed to them and provided Caesar with a navy. In 56 BCE the Roman navy attacked the Veneti and defeated them (at an action called 'The Battle of Morhiban'). Their principal city was captured, its male population slaughtered and the women and children sold into slavery. This action changed the balance of power in the region, increasing the power of the Namnetes who, previously, had simply been a client state of the Venetes.
Veragri
The Veragri were an Alpine tribe whose territory consisted of the western part of the modern Valais (being situated between Martigny-la-Ville and Martigny-Bourg, on the left bank of the Rhone, near the point where it bends northward towards the lake of Geneva) and their principal settlement was Octodorus. They are mentioned by Julius Caesar in his de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars). They represent one of the first tribes affected by Caesar's excursion into Gaul. Caesar sends Servius Galba with the twelfth legion and part of the cavalry, against the Nantuates, the Veragri, and Seduni, who extend from the territories of the Allobroges, and the lake of Geneva, and the River Rhone to the top of the Alps. This is done to secure the pass along the Alps to open the way and secure it for Roman merchants. After winning some skirmishes and gaining hostages Galba determines to overwinter in the Veragri settlement of Octodurus. After the passage of two days the Seduni and Veragri combine and renew the war. Galba wins the battle, but decides to withdrew to the 'province' (ie Transalpine Gaul). He burns Octodurus to the ground and leaves the scene.
Viducasses
The Viducasses were one of the smaller Gaulish tribes with their territory being in a region that corresponds to modern Normandy (the plains of Caen), sited between the Baiocasses and Caletes tribes. Their capital was Aragenuae (modern Vieux in the Calvados regions). In his Natural History Pliny the Elder mentions the Viducasses amongst the list of the peoples of Gallia Aquitanica. As they are not mentioned by Caesar, they may have been a sub-tribe of the Esuvii (see above) and incorporated into them.
Etymologically the name Viducasses can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic elements: *widu- (wood) and *kasso- (curly, woven, twisted — the sense being 'those woven together, 'tribe' or 'people'). Thus the Viducasses are the 'People of the Wood'.
Viromandui
The Viromandui were a Belgic peoples whose territory included the modern diocese of Noyon, the northern part of the department of Aisne and the eastern part of the Somme. They gave their name to the modern Vermand, the capital of Vermandois. In 57 BCE they were a part of the Belgian coalition against Julius Caesar led by the Bellovaci and provided 10 000 men to the cause. Most of the Belgic forces collapsed easily, but the Viromandui along with the Nervii, Atrebates an Aduatuci refused to give in. The Romans finally won the ensuing battle, with the Nervii being slaughtered to a man, the Aduatuci reinforcements never arrived in time and the surviving Atrebates and Viromandui fled the scene. However, they are not recorded by Julius Caesar as taking part in the Vercingetorix uprising of 52 BCE.
Vocates
This Aquitanian tribe is known primarily from Julius Caesar's de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars). According to Caesar after defeating the Sotiates, Crassus (Caesar's lieutenant) marched for the country of the Vocates and the Tarusates. This strongly suggests that the Sotiates, Vocates and Tarustes shared a border. We have already seen that the Sotiates occupied the country round Sos, and the Tarusates dwelt either in the district of Aire or in the neighbouring district of Tartas which suggests that the realm of the Vocates extended southward into the department of Les Landes. Knowing that the Roman troops were approaching the Vocates and Tarusates seek aid from their Iberian neighbours and for the first time the Romans face troops trained in Roman tactics (for the details, see the entry on the Tarusates). Of course, the Romans are ultimately victorious and thus ends the last vestiges of a free Aquitaine.
Vocontii
The Vocontii were a Gaulish tribe of the Vaucluse (with a territory between the Durance and the Isere rivers) in the foothills of the Alps; their capital being Vaiso (Vaison-le-Romaine) near their oppidium which was recently uncovered by excavation. They were subjugated by the first Roman incursion into Gaul (125–124 BCE) where they gained the status of civitas foederati (allied state).
In his Geography (circa 10 BCE) Strabo describes the Vocontii thus: 'After the Sallyes come the Albienses and the Albioeci and the Vocontii, who occupy the northerly parts of the mountains. But the Vocontii, stretching alongside the others, reach as far as the Allobroges; they have glens in the depths of their mountainous country that are of considerable size and not inferior to those which the Allobroges have. Now the Allobroges and the Ligures are ranked as subject to the praetors who come to Narbonitis, but the Vocontii (as I said of the Volcae who live round about Nemausus) are ranked as autonomous.'
A Vocontian unit, the Ala Augusta Vocontiorum civium Romanorum (August Wing of Vocontii, citizens of Rome)was stationed in Lower Germany until the beginning of the second century AD when it was apparently moved to Britain in the train of emperor Hadrian, during his visit to the islands in 122. The only concrete evidence of this unit is at Newstead in Scotland, very likely during the Antonine occupation of the Scottish Borders and Dumfries and Galloway.
One of the goddesses known to be sacred to the Vocontii is the bear goddess Andarta.
Volcae
The Volcae were a large and powerful Gaulish tribe of the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis who occupied the territory between the River Garonne, Cebenna mons and the River Rhône; which essentially corresponds to the boundaries of the ancient province of Languedoc. The Hérault River divided this tribe into tow populations: the larger Volcae Tectosages on the west and the Volcae Arecomici on the east. The Volcae were fiercely independent, with the Tectosages having a capital in Tolosa (Toulouse) and the Arecomici having a capital in Nemasus (Nîmes) and they also had a provincial capital and gubernorial residence in Narbo Martius (Narbonne). In his de Bello Gallico (on the Gallic Wars) Julius Caesar mentions as a Celtic tribe, a branch of which still remained in Germania. This may well have been a site near Hercynia Silva (the Hercynian Forest). It should be noted that Tectosages was also the name of one of the three great communities of Gauls who colonized and settled Asia Minor in Galatia (modern Turkey).
In 121 BCE the Volcae Arecomici surrendered of their own accord to the Roman Republic, after which they occupied he Roman provincia (province) of Gallia Narbonensis which corresponds to the southern part of Gallia Transalpina. From the Roman records it is said that they held their assemblies in the sacred wood of Nemasus (which corresponds with modern Nîmes.
The lands of the Volcae Tectosages lay outside the Roman Republic at this time and they were not incorporated into the Roman Empire until the conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar in 52 BCE, where they acquiesced to the power of Rome and offered no resistance.
Assuming that Volkae is the correct form of the tribe's name then it can be derived from the reconstructed proto-Celtic element: *wolko- (rain, wetness) or *wlikwo- (wet). Thus the Volcae are 'the people of wetness' or more probably 'the River People'.
If you would like to try the foods of the time of the ancient Celts, then why not have a look at the ancient recipes section of this site. For the foods of the time when some of these tales were written down, take a look at the Medieval recipes section of the site and, in particular, the recipes from The Forme of Cury.
Couldn't find what you were looking for? Search the web:
Navigation
Select a Subset of
Deities:
- A-B-C
- Ch-D-Dd
- E-F-Ff
- G-Ng-H
- I-J-K
- L-Ll-M
- N-O-P
- Ph-Q-R
- Rh-S-T
- Th-U-V
- W-X-Y
- Z
- Miscellania
- Celtic Tribes
- Search the Celtic Gods List
